Additional Reading
Additional Reading
(Introduction)
Economic
Impacts of the Green Industry in the United States Final Report to the National
Urban and Community Forestry Advisory Committee. 2005. Charles R. Hall, Alan W.
Hodges, John J. Haydu.
National
Agricultural Statistics Service. 2004. USDA
Nursery Crops 2003 Summary. U.S. Department of Agriculture, July 2004. Special
Circular 6-2 (04)a.
Economic
Contributions of the Green Industry in the United States in 2007-08. Alan W.
Hodges, Charles R. Hall, and Marco A. Palma. HortTechnology. Production and
Marketing Reports. October 2011 21(5).
U.S.
Department of Agriculture (USDA) Census of Agriculture. 2007.
|
Additional Reading
(Irrigation)
Alexander,
S. V. 1993. Pollution control and prevention at containerized nursery
operations. Wat. Sci. Tech. 28(3-5):509-517.
Anon. 1981. Design
Guide for Turf and Ornamental Irrigation Systems, Rain Bird Sprinkler Mfg.
Corp. 145 N. Grand Ave. Glendora, California 91740.
Anon. 1996. Standards and specifications for turf
and landscape irrigation systems. 3rd ed. Florida Irrigation Society, Inc., PO
Box 1627, Goldenrod, Florida 32733.
Beeson, Jr.
R. and J. Haydu. 1995. Cyclic irrigation in container-grown landscape plants
improves plant growth and water conservation. Journal of Environ. Hort. 13(1):
6-11.
Beeson, R.
C. and G. W. Knox. 1991. Analysis of efficiency of overhead irrigation in
container production. HortScience
26(7):848-850.
Bilderback,
T. 2002. Water management is key to reducing nutrient runoff from container
nurseries. HortTechnology 12:7-10.
Burger, D.
W., J. S. Hartin, D. R. Hodel, T. A. Lukaszewski, S. A. Tjosvold, and S. A
Wagner. 1987. Water use in California’s ornamental nurseries. California
Agriculture 41(9-10):7-8.
Clemmens, A.
J. 1991. Irrigation uniformity relationships for irrigation system management. Journal
of Irrigation and Drainage Engineering 113:682-699.
Davis II,
B. 1994.
Starting a container nursery.
Tennessee Nurserymen’s Association Short Course.
Drees, B.
M., D. McWilliams, J. M. Sweeten, and D. C. Wilkerson. Water Management
Guidelines for the Texas Greenhouse Industry. Texas Agricultural Extension
Service 500-7-90.
Fare, D. C.,
C. H. Gilliam, and G. J. Keever. 1992. Monitoring irrigation at container
nurseries. HortTechnology 2(1):75-78.
Fare, D.C.,
C.H. Gilliam, G.J. Keever, and J.W. Olive. 1994. Cyclic irrigation reduces
container leachate nitrate-nitrogen concentration. HortScience
29(12):1514-1517.
Furuta, T.
1974. Environmental plant production and marketing, 1st ed. Cox Publishing Co.,
Arcadia, Calif.
Goldhamer,
D. A. and R. L. Synder. 1989. Irrigation scheduling: A guide for efficient on-farm water
management. University of California
Division of Agriculture and Natural Resources Publication 21454.
http://anrcatalog.ucdavis.edu/InOrder/Shop/Shop.asp
Green, J. L.
1989. Special Report: Practices to
minimize contamination of groundwater and runoff water in greenhouse and
nursery production of container-grown plants. Ornamentals Northwest 13(3):9-16.
Hanley, D.
1981. Recommendations for designing windbreaks. American Nurseryman 154(10):
12-13, 48, 50, 52, 54-57, 60-67.
Nakayama, F.
S. and D. A. Bucks. 1991. Water quality in drip/trickle irrigation: A review. Irrigation
Science 12:187-192.
Niemiera, A.
X. 1994. Fertilizers: Minimizing use and
maximizing growth of container and field-grown plants, p. 105-115. In: C.
Heuser and P. Heuser (eds.). Recycling and Resource Conservation a Reference
Guide for Nursery and Landscape Industries. Pennsylvania Nurserymen’s
Association, Inc., Harrisburg, Pennsylvania.
Regan, R.
1992. Improving overhead irrigation. American Nurseryman 176(9):45-51.
Regan, R.
1994. The basics of nursery irrigation systems. The Digger 38(6):22-25.
Ross, D. R.
1994. Reducing water use under nursery and landscape conditions, p 21-35. In:
C. Heuser and P. Heuser (eds.). Recycling and Resource Conservation a Reference
Guide for Nursery and Landscape Industries.
Pennsylvania Nurserymen’s Association, Inc., Harrisburg, Pennsylvania.
Seginer, I.
1971. Water losses during sprinkling. Transactions ASAE 14:656-659 and 664.
Smucker, B.
1985. Weston gains ground and calms the waters in its difficult terrain. American
Nurseryman 163(1):77-78.
Whitcomb, C.
E. 1988. Plant Production in Containers. Lacebark Publications. Stillwater,
Oklahoma.
Warren, S.
and T. Bilderback. 2002. Timing of low-pressure irrigation affects plant growth
and water utilization efficiency. Journal of Environ. Hort. 20(3): 184-188.
Yeager, T.
2006. Florida Container Nursery BMP Guide. Florida Department of Agriculture
and Consumer Services.
http://floridaagwaterpolicy.com
|
Additional Reading
(Irrigation Water Sources)
Austin,
B. 1989. Brominization vs. chlorine. Proc.
Inter. Plant Prop. Soc. 39:310-311.
Davidson,
H., C. Peterson, R. Mecklenburg. 1994. Nursery
Management. 3rd ed. Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey.
Welch, P. S.
1935. Limnology. 1st ed. McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., New York.
|
Additional Reading
(Water Quality)
Anonymous.
1999. Soil and plant analysis laboratory registry for the United States and
Canada. 2nd ed. CRC Press, Inc. Boca Raton, Florida.
Ayers, R. S.
and R. L. Branson. 1977. U.C. guidelines for interpretation of agricultural
water quality. California Agriculture, May 1977, p. 25.
Ayers, R. S.
and R. L. Branson. 1978. Irrigation water quality, p. 49-50. In: H.M.
Reisenauer (ed.). Soil and plant-tissue testing in California. University of
California Ext. Bull. 1879, Division of Agricultural Sciences, University of
California, Berkeley.
Bunt, A. C.
1976. Modern potting composts. Pennsylvania State University Press, University
Park, Pennsylvania.
Farnham, D.
S., R. F. Hasek, and J. L. Paul. 1985. Water
quality: Its effects on ornamental
plants. University of California Extension Leaflet 2995, Division of
Agricultural Sciences, University of California, Berkeley.
Fitzpatrick,
G. and T. Broschat. 1984. Removing irrigation water residues from ornamental
plant foliage. Cooperative Extension
Service Fact Sheet OHC-13, University of Florida, Institute of Food and
Agricultural Sciences, Gainesville, Florida.
Ford, H. W.
1980. The present status of research on iron deposits in low volume irrigation
systems. Lake Alfred AREC Research Report CS 75-3, Revised as HWF-100.
Gilbert, R.
G. and H. W. Ford. 1986. Operational principles - emitter clogging, p.
142-163. In: F. S. Nakayama and D. A.
Bucks (Eds.). Trickle irrigation for crop production, design operation and
management. Elsevier Science Publishers B. V., Amsterdam.
Hammer, D.
A. (Ed.). 1989. Constructed wetlands for wastewater treatment - municipal,
industrial and agricultural. Lewis
Publishers, Chelsea, Michigan.
Hanlon, E.
A., G. Kidder, and B. L. McNeal.
1990. Soil, container media, and
water testing. Cooperative Extension
Service Circular 817, University of Florida, Institute of Food and Agricultural
Sciences, Gainesville, Florida.
Hoadley, B.
and D. Ingram. 1982. Water quality and woody ornamental plant
production. Cooperative Extension
Service Fact Sheet OHC-4, University of Florida, Institute of Food and
Agricultural Sciences, Gainesville, Florida.
Kah, G.
1992. Testing irrigation uniformity: When
full coverage isn’t enough. Landscape and Irrigation 16(7): 64-66.
Kidder, G.
and E. A. Hanlon, Jr. 1985. Neutralizing excess bicarbonates from irrigation
water. Notes in Soil Science No. 18,
February 1985, Soil Science Department.
Cooperative Extension Service, University of Florida, Institute of Food
and Agricultural Sciences, Gainesville, Florida.
Knox, G. W.
and T. H. Yeager. 1991. Irrigation water quality guidelines. The Woody
Ornamentalist 16(1):1-4.
Knox, G. W.
and T. H. Yeager. 1991. Alternative irrigation strategies. The Woody
Ornamentalist 16(2):1-3.
Olson, R. K.
(Ed.). 1993. Created and natural wetlands for controlling nonpoint source
pollution. U.S. EPA Office of Research and Development and Office of Wetlands,
Oceans, and Watersheds. C.K. Smoley, CRC Press, Inc., Boca Raton, Florida.
Turbidity
Research. 1996. Sediments Newsletter of the N.C. Sedimentation Control
Commission. In: Toby Vinson (Ed.) Sediments 3:(2): p1-7.
|
Additional Reading
(Water Quality Websites)
Bailey, D.,
T. Bilderback and D. Bir. 1996. Water considerations for container production
of plants. Hort. Info. Leaflet No. 557. http://www.ces.ncsu.edu/depts/hort/floriculture/hils/hil557.html
Bailey, D.
and T. Bilderback. 1998. Alkalinity control for irrigation water used in
nurseries and greenhouses. Hort. Info.
Leaflet No. 558. http://www.ces.ncsu.edu/depts/hort/floriculture/hils/hil558.html
http://www.ces.ncsu.edu/depts/hort/floriculture/hils/HIL558
|
Additional Reading
(Pesticides)
Best
Management Practices for Agrichemical Handling and Farm Equipment Maintenance,
Florida Department of Agriculture and Consumer Services and the Florida
Department of Environmental Protection
http://www.dep.state.fl.us/water/nonpoint/docs/nonpoint/agbmp3p.pdf
Dean, T. W.
and R. A. Bucklin. 1996. Building plans and management practices for a
permanently sited pesticide storage facility in Florida (SM-57). Florida
Cooperative Extension Service, Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences, Box
110011, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida, 32611.
Dean, T. W.
and R. A. Bucklin. 1996. Building plans and management practices for a
permanently sited agricultural pesticide mixing/loading facility (SM-58). Florida
Cooperative Extension Service, Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences, Box
110011, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida, 32611.
|
Additional Reading
(Nutrition)
Anon. 1999. Soil
and plant analysis laboratory registry for the United States and Canada. 2nd
ed. CRC Press, Inc. Boca Raton, Florida.
Beeson, R.
C., Jr. 1995. The root of the problem. Four steps do determine proper substrate
aeration. Ornamental Outlook 4(6): 12.
Bilderback,
T. E. and W. C. Fonteno. 1987. Effects of container geometry and media physical
properties on air and water volumes in containers. Journal Environ. Hort.
5:180-182.
Bilderback,
T. E. 1996. Properties of container substrates. Proceedings of Container
Substrate and Water Management. North Carolina Cooperative Extension Service
Agent Training. January 3, 1996.
Ingram, D.
L., R. W. Henley, and T. H. Yeager. 1990. Diagnostic and Monitoring Procedures
for Nursery Crops. University of Florida Ext. Cir. 556. http://edis.ifas.ufl.edu
Nelson, P.
V. 1991. Greenhouse Operation and Management, 4th edition. Prentice Hall Career
and Technology, Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey
Standards
Australia. 1989. Australian Standard 3743 - Potting Mixes. Standards Association
of Australia, Standards House, 80 Arthur St., North Sydney 2060, New South
Wales.
Whipker, B.
E., T. J. Cavins, and W. C. Fonteno. 2001. 1, 2, 3s of Pour-Thru. North
Carolina State University.
http://www.ces.ncsu.edu/floriculture/
|
Additional Reading
(Field Production)
The American
Standards for Nursery Stock. ANSI 60.1.
American Nursery and Landscape Association, 1200 G Street, NW,
Washington, DC 20005.
Best
Management Practices For Field Growing Nursery Stock. AG-511. pp 1-15. North Carolina
State University
Box 7603,
Raleigh, NC 27695-7603. http://www.bae.ncsu.edu/programs/extension/ag-env/nursery/
Bilderback,
T. E., R. E. Bir and M. A. Powell. Pruning Field Grown Shade and Flowering
Trees. Horticultural Information Leaflet No. 406. North Carolina State University, Box 7603,
Raleigh, NC 27695-7603.
http://www.ces.ncsu.edu/depts/hort/hil/hil406r.html
California
Fertilizer Association. Western Fertilizer Handbook, Horticulture Edition. 1990.
Interstate Publishers, Inc. P.O.
Box 50, Danville, IL 61834-0050.
Design Guide
for Turf and Ornamental Irrigation Systems. 1981. Rain Bird Sprinkler Mfg.
Corp, 145 N. Grand Ave. Glendora, CA 91740.
Garber, M.
P., J. M. Ruter, and J. T. Midcap. Production and Marketing of Field Grown
Trees in Georgia. Bulletin 1115, pp 1-18.
The University of Georgia, College of Agricultural and Environmental
Services, Cooperative Extension Service. Athens, GA.
Managing
Drought On Nursery Crops. 2007. North Carolina State University, Box 7603,
Raleigh, NC 27695-7603.
http://www.ces.ncsu.edu/disaster/drought/nursery_crops.pdf
The North
Carolina Agricultural Chemicals Manual. North Carolina State University. NCSU
Publications Office, Box 7603, Raleigh, NC 27695-7603.
http://ipm.ncsu.edu/agchem/agchem.html
Safley,
C. 2001. Got Cost Estimates? (What it Costs to Grow Field Grown Trees and
Shrubs). North Carolina State
University, Department of Agriculture and
Resource Economics, pp. 32-34.
http://www.ces.ncsu.edu/depts/hort/nursery/cultural/cultural_docs/business/got_cost_estimates.pdf
University
of Florida. Weeds of Southern Turfgrass. University of Florida, Publication
Distributions Center, IFAS Building 664, PO Box 110011, Gainesville, FL 32611.
[University Extension Services in Georgia, Alabama and South Carolina also
distribute this text.]
Uva, R., J.
Neal, and J. DiTomaso. 1997. Weeds of the Northeast. Cornell University Press. PO Box 6525,
Ithaca, NY 14851-6525.
Water
Considerations For Container Production of Plants. North Carolina State University.
NCSU Horticulture Information Leaflet No. 557, pp 1-11.
http://www.ces.ncsu.edu/depts/hort/hil/hil-557.html
Weed Control
Suggestions for Christmas Trees, Woody Ornamentals, and Flowers; Bulletin AG
427. North Carolina State University.
Publications, NCSU, Box 7603, Raleigh, NC 27695-7603. 72 pp.
|
Web Pages
SNA Conference
Proceedings 1991 – 2012 (2,872 titles comprised of 11,208 pages), available in
Portable Document Format (PDF) for downloading and viewing or printing.
http://www.sna.org
Chemicals
Agricultural
Chemical Drift and Its Control. 1993.
http://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/ae043
Agricultural
Chemicals Manual. 2013.
http://ipm.ncsu.edu/agchem/agchem.html
CDMS - Ag
Chem Database (labels and MSDS info)
http://www.cdms.net/ACM.aspx
Chemical
Injection Methods for Irrigation
http://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/WI004
Injection of
Chemicals Into Irrigation Systems: Rates, Volumes, and Injection Periods
http://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/AE116
Pesticide Recordkeeping
Manual and Form
http://www.ams.usda.gov/AMSv1.0/getfile?dDocName=STELPRD3342981
http://www.ams.usda.gov/AMSv1.0/getfile?dDocName=STELPRD3342996
Fertility/Substrate
Annual
Maintenance and Evaluation of Overhead Irrigation Systems
http://ufdc.ufl.edu/IR00002388/00001
A Simple
Intermittent Spray System
http://www.ces.ncsu.edu/depts/hort/hil/hil-405.html
Basic
Irrigation Scheduling in Florida
http://itc.tamu.edu/AE11100.pdf
Basic
Irrigation Terminology
http://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/pdffiles/AE/AE11500.pdf
Causes and
Prevention of Emitter Plugging In Microirrigation Systems
http://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/AE032
Collecting
Water Samples at Container Nurseries
http://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/EP051
Container
Media Nutrient Test Interpretation
http://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/ss316
Efficiencies
of Irrigation Systems Used in Florida Nurseries
http://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/AE087
Estimating
Crop Irrigation Requirements for Irrigation System Design and Consumptive Use
Permitting
http://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/AE078
Evaporation
Loss During Sprinkler Irrigation
http://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/AE048
Excavated
Pond Construction in Florida
http://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/AE013
Field
Evaluation of Container Nursery Irrigation Systems: Part 1: Measuring Operating
Pressures in the Irrigation System 1
http://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/AE088
Field
Evaluation of Container Nursery Irrigation Systems: Part 2: Measuring Application
Rates
http://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/AE097
Fittings and
Connections for Flexible Polyethylene Pipe Used in Microirrigation Systems
http://www.irrigationtoolbox.com/ReferenceDocuments/Extension/Florida/WI01100.pdf
Flushing
Procedures for Microirrigation Systems
http://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/WI013
Growth Media
for Container Grown Ornamental Plants
http://miami-dade.ifas.ufl.edu/agriculture/CCH/media.pdf
Installation
of Mist Propagation Equipment
http://orange.ifas.ufl.edu/mg/mg_compendium/pdffiles/ep/EP03200.pdf
Irrigation
System Controllers
http://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/AE077
Irrigation
System Selection for Container Nurseries
http://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/AE089
Irrigating
With High Salinity Water
http://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/AE091
Measuring
Pump Capacity for Irrigation System Design
http://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/AE067
Media
Filters For Trickle Irrigation In Florida
http://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/WI008
Media
Storage Problems
http://www.nurserycropscience.info/substrates/manage-inventory/extension-pubs/pine-bark-storage-and-handling.doc/view
Nursery and
Greenhouse Nutrient Management (U. of Maryland Cooperative Extension)
http://www.psla.umd.edu/Faculty/lea-cox/Program%20Descriptions/Nursery%20and%20Greenhouse%20NM%20Annual%20Report%202010.pdf
Neutralizing
Excess Bicarbonates From Irrigation Water
http://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/SS165
Opinions on
Plant Irrigation Requirements
http://mrec.ifas.ufl.edu/rcb/drought/opinions%20of%20nursery%20irrigation%20requirements.pdf
Potential
Impacts of Improper Irrigation System Design
http://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/AE027
Screen
Filters in Trickle Irrigation Systems
http://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/WI009
Small Steps
to Improving Your Irrigation System, Reducing Labor and Increasing Your Bottom
Line
http://www.ag.auburn.edu/landscape/field.html
Soil Plant
Water Relationships
http://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/AE021
Soil Water
Samplers in Horticultural Nursery Use-Nutrient Extraction from Large Containers
http://www.soilmoisture.com/horticulture.html
Treating
Irrigation Systems with Chlorine
http://ufdc.ufl.edu/IR00000971/00001
Uniformity
of Sprinkler and Microirrigation Systems for Nurseries
http://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/pdffiles/AE/AE09000.pdf
Using the
Pour-Thru Procedure for Checking EC and pH for Nursery Crops
http://www.ces.ncsu.edu/depts/hort/hil/hil-401.html
Valves in
Irrigation Systems
http://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/WI005
Water Wells
for Florida Irrigation Systems
http://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/WI002
Water Hammer
In Irrigation Systems
http://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/AE066
Production
Best
Management Practices for Field Production of Nursery Stock
http://www.bae.ncsu.edu/programs/extension/ag-env/nursery/
Container
Conversion Chart
http://www.ag.auburn.edu/landscape/STGOmarch2001.html#conversion
Grafting and
Budding Nursery Crop Plants
http://www.ces.ncsu.edu/depts/hort/hil/ag396.html
Integrated
Pest Management in the Commercial Ornamental Nursery
http://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/ig144
Layout and
Design Considerations for a Wholesale Container Nursery
http://ufdc.ufl.edu/IR00003268/00001
Managing
Pesticides for Ornamentals Production and Water Quality Protection
http://ufdc.ufl.edu/IR00003080/00001
Nursery and
Greenhouse Nutrient Management (from Maryland Cooperative Extension)
http://www.psla.umd.edu/Faculty/lea-cox/Program%20Descriptions/Nursery%20and%20Greenhouse%20NM%20Annual%20Report%202010.pdf
Nursery
Budgets-What You Need to Know to Make the Right Decisions
http://www.ag.auburn.edu/landscape/budgetguide.html
Pot-In-Pot
Systems Across the United States
http://www.uky.edu/Ag/Horticulture/potinpot_files/v3_document.htm
Pruning
Field Grown Shade and Flowering Trees
http://www.ces.ncsu.edu/depts/hort/hil/hil-406.html
Selecting a
Method for Sealing Ponds in Florida
http://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/WI012
|
Southeastern Universities and
Links to Extension Publications
Alabama
A&M University
http://www.aamu.edu/
Alabama A
& M and Auburn University Cooperative Extension System (Alabama)
http://www.aces.edu/
Tuskegee
University (Alabama)
http://www.tuskegee.edu/
University of
Arkansas
http://www.uaex.edu/
University
of Arkansas at Pine Bluff
http://www.uapb.edu/
University
of Florida
http://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/
Florida
A&M University
http://www.famu.edu/index.cfm?academics&CentersandInstitutes
Fort Valley
State University (Georgia)
http://past.fvsu.edu/about/external-affairs/cooperative-extension
University
of Georgia
http://pubs.caes.uga.edu/caespubs/pubs.html
Kentucky
State University
http://www.kysu.edu/landGrant/coopextensionprogram/
University
of Kentucky
http://www.uky.edu/Ag/Horticulture/comnursury.html
Louisiana
State University
http://www.lsuagcenter.com
Southern
University and A&M College (Louisiana)
http://www.subr.edu
University
of Maryland
http://agnr.umd.edu/global-impact/extension
University
of Maryland Eastern Shore
http://www.umes.edu/Agriculture/Default.aspx?id=1542
Alcorn State
University (Mississippi)
http://www.alcorn.edu/
Mississippi
State University
http://msucares.com/pubs/
Lincoln
University (Missouri)
http://www.luce.lincolnu.edu/
University
of Missouri
http://muextension.missouri.edu/xplor/agguides/hort/#Landscaping
North
Carolina A&T State University
http://www.ag.ncat.edu/extension/
North
Carolina State University
http://www.ces.ncsu.edu/depts/hort/hil/nurs-index.html
Langston
University (Oklahoma)
http://www.lunet.edu/
Oklahoma
State University
http://home.okstate.edu/Okstate/dasnr/hort/hortlahome.nsf/toc/research
Clemson
University (South Carolina)
http://www.clemson.edu/psapublishing/pages/Hort/Hort.htm
South
Carolina State University
http://www.scsu.edu/
Tennessee
State University
http://www.tnstate.edu/cep/
University
of Tennessee
http://www.utextension.utk.edu/
Prairie View
A&M University (Texas)
http://acad.pvamu.edu/content/ag_husc/index.html
Texas
A&M University
http://texasextension.tamu.edu/
Virginia
State University
http://www.vsu.edu/
Virginia
Tech
http://www.ext.vt.edu/cgi-bin/WebObjects/Docs.woa/wa/getcat?cat=ir-cgnl-np
West
Virginia University
http://www.wvu.edu/~exten/infores/pubs.htm
West
Virginia State College
http://www.wvsctc.edu/index.html
|
Glossary
Absorption - a process in which one substance permeates
another; a fluid (such as water) permeates or is dissolved by a liquid or solid
through pores or membranes.
Acetic acid - a clear, colorless, pungent organic acid
that may be found in container substrates that are stored in large piles with
low air exchange.
Acid - a substance that tends to give up protons
(hydrogen ions) to some other substance or when dissolved in water.
Acidity - the property of being acidic; a substance
is considered acidic if the pH is less than 7.
Adsorption - the adhesion of gases, solutes, or liquids
to the surfaces of solid bodies (such as substrates or soil) or liquids with
which they are in contact.
Air space - the percentage of container volume
occupied by air-filled large pores from which water drains following
irrigation.
Alkalinity - concentration of bases often expressed as
carbonate or bicarbonate equivalents. An alkaline substrate will have a pH
greater than 7.
Anaerobic - living, active, or occurring in the
absence of free oxygen.
Bicarbonate - salts of carbonic acid. These salts such
as sodium, calcium, and magnesium (NaHCO3, CaCO3 and MgCO3),
have an alkalizing effect.
Biological control - the use of living organisms to control
crop pests.
BMP - the Best Management Practices include
schedules of activities, prohibitions, maintenance procedures, and structural
or other management practices found to be the most effective and practicable
methods to prevent or reduce the discharge of pollutants to the air or waters
of the United States. Best management practices also include operating
procedures, and practices to control site runoff, spillage or leaks, sludge or
waste disposal, or drainage from raw material storage.
Bulk density - the weight of dry substrate per unit
volume of substrate (g/cc).
Cambium - tissue between xylem and phloem that is
responsible for secondary growth in most vascular plants.
Carbonate - to impregnate with carbon dioxide or
having high levels of carbon dioxide.
Cation Exchange Capacity (CEC) - total of exchangeable cations (positively
charged ions) that a substrate can adsorb. Some cations include ammonium,
potassium, calcium, and magnesium.
Collection structure (basin) - an enclosed body of water to collect
irrigation runoff water or rainfall from storm events.
Constructed wetland - a shallow depressed area (with or without
water) filled with selected vegetation (i.e. cattails) to serve as a biological
filter for removing nutrients and chemicals.
Container area - area that a group of plants occupies
during the production phase. A typical,
single area is 6-8 feet wide and 50-300 feet long.
Container capacity - the maximum volume of water that a
substrate can retain following irrigation and drainage due to gravity and is a
measure of the water reservoir of the container.
Controlled-release fertilizer - fertilizer in which nutrients are released
over time. Release is controlled by physical or biological degradation, by the
thickness of the coating (i.e. resin), or by the type of coating surrounding
the mineral elements.
Cyclic irrigation - irrigation practice where a plant’s daily
water allotment is divided into a series of events with irrigation application
and rest intervals throughout the day.
Deionization - a technique used to remove ions (charged
particles) from irrigation water. Commercial systems are available that combine
prefiltration, mixed-bed resins, activated carbon, and final filtration.
Denitrification - in the absence of oxygen, microorganisms
use nitrate or other forms of oxidized nitrogen instead of oxygen during the
respiration process.
Deposition infiltration - a term used to describe filtration of
naturally deposited sediments or minerals.
Electrical conductivity (EC) - the measure of salt content of water based
on the flow of electrical current. The higher the salt content, the greater the
flow of electrical current. EC is measured in mmhos/cm or decisiemens/m.
Emitter - a device used to distribute water for
irrigation that can discharge in droplets, small streams, or through
mini-sprayers.
Evapotranspiration - the combination of water that is evaporated
from container substrate or native soil and water that is transpired by plants
as a part of their metabolic processes.
Half-life - the time required for a substance to
degrade by one-half.
Hardness - a characteristic of water caused by the
presence of various salts, e.g. calcium, magnesium, and iron. Hardness is often
associated with the presence of bicarbonates and carbonates (alkalizing
effect).
Hydrophobic - having a lack of affinity for water or may
repel and not absorb water.
Hydrophyte - a plant that lives in water.
Leachate - the solution that drains from container substrate
during and after irrigation and may contain nutrients and pesticides from the
substrate solution.
Leaching fraction - the volume of leachate divided by the
total volume of irrigation entering the container multiplied by 100. This
fraction should be 10-15%.
Lime - a material containing carbonates, oxides,
and/or hydroxides, and used to neutralize substrate acidity. A common form,
dolomitic limestone, contains calcium and magnesium.
Microirrigation - an irrigation system that delivers small
amounts of water through emitters (spray or drip) in which gallons of water per
hour are applied rather than gallons of water per minute.
Mycelium - the vegetative part of a fungus, which
consists of a mass of branching, threadlike hyphae.
Nematode - very small (microscopic) worms abundant in
many native soils that can destroy plant roots.
Non-cyclic - a continuous cycle of irrigation where the
entire daily amount is applied in one application.
Oxalic acid - a toxic colorless crystalline organic acid
found in oxalis and other plants; used as a cleansing agent for bleaching and
rust removal.
Pathogen - an agent that causes disease, especially a
living microorganism such as a bacterium or fungus.
Perched water table - area of temporary saturation at the bottom
of a container or area of temporary saturation in native soil saturated with
water.
Percolation - the slow movement of water through a
substrate or soil.
Permeability - the capacity of porous rock, sediment or
soil to allow water movement through.
Pesticides - any form of chemical or substance used to
control pests. Pesticides include fungicides, herbicides, and insecticides,
etc.
pH - a logarithmic measurement, ranging from 0
to 14, of the acidity or alkalinity (concentration of hydrogen ions (H+)) of a
solution which numerically equals 7 for neutral solutions, increasing with
increasing alkalinity and decreasing with increasing acidity. A change of one
unit is a tenfold change in hydrogen ion concentration.
Pheromones - naturally occurring chemicals secreted by
insects or synthetically produced substances that can influence the behavior or
often functioning as an attractant of the opposite sex.
Post-emergence - herbicides that can kill actively growing
broadleaf or grassy-type weeds.
Pot-in-pot - a nursery production system in which a
container is recessed in field soil and used as a holder for another container
that contains the substrate.
Pour-through - a technique used to monitor container
nutrient status.
Pre-emergence - herbicides applied to bare soil or
container substrate that inhibit weed seeds from germinating.
Reverse osmosis - process where water is forced under
pressure through a semipermeable membrane to remove salts or impurities that
cannot traverse the membrane.
Rhizosphere - the soil zone that surrounds and is
influenced by the roots of plants.
Riparian buffer - Strips of grass, shrubs and/or trees along
the banks of rivers and streams that filter polluted runoff and provide a
transition zone between water and human land use.
Runoff - the portion of rainfall or irrigation on
an area that is discharged from the area. Runoff which is lost without entering
the soil is called surface runoff and that which enters the soil is called
ground water runoff or seepage flow.
Sedimentation - the process of particles that were held in
suspension settling out of water.
Sodium Adsorption Ratio (SAR) - the cation concentrations of calcium and
magnesium relative to sodium. Sodium is often responsible for salinity problems
when linked to chloride (Cl) or sulfate (SO4). The following formula is used to
calculate the adsorption ratio:
The cation
concentrations are expressed as milliequivalents per liter as determined by a
water analysis.
Soluble salts - see electrical conductivity.
Solution fertilizer - soluble nutrient carriers dissolved in
water.
Subirrigation - a method used to apply irrigation to the
bottom of container grown ornamentals or to the root zone of field crops which
allows water to move from the bottom through the substrate or soil by capillary
movement.
Substrate - organic and inorganic materials, often
bark, peat, and sand, used as media components in a container to support the
plant and contain the root system.
Suction lysimeter - an extraction tool used to obtain substrate
solution for measurement of EC, pH and nutrient concentration.
Topographical - graphic representation or map of the
relative positions and elevations surface features for a place or region.
Total porosity - the total volume of pore space in a substrate
and is expressed as a percentage of the total substrate volume.
Turbidity - the suspended particulate matter ranging
in size from colloidal to coarse dispersions in water.
Volatilization - to evaporate or cause to evaporate.
Water holding capacity - the ability of container substrate to
retain water after drainage.
|
Appendix A
Laboratories
Laboratories
registered with the Soil and Plant Analysis Council (Anon. 1999) are listed
below.
Alabama
Soil Testing
Laboratory
ALFA
Agricultural Services & Research Building
961 S.
Donahue Drive
Auburn
University, AL 36849-5411
334.844.3958,
FAX: 334.844.4001
Arkansas
Agricultural
Diagnostic Laboratory
276-A
Altheimer Dr.
University
of Arkansas
Fayetteville,
AR 72704
501.575.3911,
FAX: 501.575.3896
Eastern
Arkansas Soil Testing and Research Laboratory
P.O. Drawer
767
Hwy 1 South
3 miles
Marianna, AR
72360
870.295.2851,
FAX: 870.295.2432
Florida
Agro
Services International, Inc.
205 E.
Michigan Ave.
Orange City,
FL 32763
904.775.6601,
FAX: 904.775.9890
Pioneer
Laboratory
4100 Glades
Road
Ft. Pierce,
FL 34981
407.464.9300,
FAX: 407.464.9308
Georgia
Agricultural
and Environmental Services
Laboratories
2400 College
Station Road
Athens,
GA 30607
706.542.5350,
FAX: 706.369.5734
Micro-Macro
International, Inc.
183 Paradise
Blvd., Suite 108
Athens,
GA 30607
706.548.4557,
FAX: 706.548.4891
Waters
Agricultural Laboratories, Inc.
P. O. Box
382
Camilla,
GA 31730-0382
912.336.7216,
FAX: 912.336.7967
Kentucky
Commonwealth
Technologies, Inc.
2520 Regency
Rd
Lexington,
KY 40503
606.276.3506,
FAX: 606.278.5665
University
of Kentucky Soil Testing Laboratory
103
Regulatory Services Building
Lexington,
KY 40546-0275
606.257.7355,
FAX: 606.257.7351
Louisiana
LSU
Agricultural Center Plant Analysis Laboratory
Agronomy
Department
Louisiana
State University
Baton Rouge,
LA 70803
504.388.1305,
FAX: 504. 388.1403
Missouri
University
of Missouri Soil and Plant Testing
Laboratory
23 Munford
Hall
University
of Missouri
Columbia,
MO 65211
573.882.3250,
FAX: 573.884.4288
North Carolina
NC
Department of Agriculture
Agronomic
Division
4300 Reedy
Creek Rd.
Raleigh,
NC 27607
919.733.2655,
FAX: 919.733.2837
Oklahoma
Soil, Water
and Forage Analytical Laboratory
048
Agricultural Hall
Oklahoma
State University
Stillwater,
OK 74078
405.744.9572,
FAX: 405.744.9575
South Carolina
Agricultural
Service Laboratory
171 Old
Cherry Rd
Clemson, SC
29634
864.656.2068,
FAX: 864.656.2069
Tennessee
A&L
Analytical Laboratories, Inc.
411 North
Third Street
Memphis,
TN 38105
901.527.2780,
FAX: 901.526.1031
Texas
Texas
Agricultural Extension Service Soil, Water, and Forage Testing Laboratory
345 Heep
Center
College
Station, TX 77843-2474
409.875.4816,
FAX: 409.845.5958
Texas Plant
& Soil Laboratory, Inc.
Route 7, Box
213-y
Edinburg,
TX 78539
956.383.0739,
FAX: 956.383.0730
Virginia
Virginia
Tech Soil Testing and Plant Analysis Laboratory
145 Smyth
Hall
Blacksburg,
VA 24061
540.231.6893,
FAX: 540.231.9262
West Virginia
West
Virginia University Soil Testing Laboratory
Division of
Plant and Soil Science
P. O. Box
6108
Morgantown,
WV 26504
304.293.6256,
FAX: 304.293.2960
|
Appendix B
Substrate Physical Properties
Bulk Density
Bulk density is expressed as dry weight per volume of container (conversions are g·cm-3 x 62.43 = lbs/ft3 or lbs/ft3 x 0.02 = g·cm-3). To determine dry bulk density, contents of the container are dried until they no longer lose weight. This may be accomplished by placing container with substrate in an oven at 158 F for 48 hours.
Air Space and Water-Holding Capacity
Procedure conducted with same containers used in plant production
The following procedure, taken from Diagnostic and Monitoring Procedures for Nursery Crops (D.L. Ingram, et al., 1990), can be used to determine substrate air space and total water holding capacity as a percentage of container volume.
Air space of a substrate is the total volume of pores filled with air after irrigation and drainage. The water-holding capacity is the percentage of the total volume of the substrate that is filled with water after irrigation and drainage. When a substrate is saturated and allowed to drain, air replaces the volume of water drained. Measuring the drainage water then gives a measurement of pore space or air space. Steps in the procedure for determining air space and water-holding capacity are given below. If a measurement of air space alone is desired, there is no need to determine the volume of water required to saturate the dry substrate in step 3.
- Measure the container volume. Secure tape on the container drainage holes and fill with water to within approximately 0.5 inch from the top. Mark this line. Carefully measure the volume of water by pouring it into a measuring cup. This volume of water is the container volume to be occupied by the substrate. An alternative way to determine container volume is to place a plastic bag in container and fill with water to desired volume.
- Dry the container inside. Do not remove the tape. Fill the container with dry substrate to the “fill line,” marked in Step 1, using packing procedures as when potting a plant.
- Using a measuring cup, slowly add water to the container and keep track of the volume of water used. Wet the dry substrate until it is saturated (a thin film of free water is present on the surface). Some dry substrates such as peat or pine bark are difficult to wet. If a wetting agent is used in production, then use a wetting agent at this time at the recommended rate. Add small amounts of water periodically as necessary to ensure complete saturation. The volume of water used to saturate the substrate is the total pore space of the substrate.
- Loosen the tape on one drainage hole and discard water that drains from the substrate. This initial drainage helps settle the substrate, as occurs in production.
- Cover the drainage hole and re-saturate the substrate with water. Adding water along only one side of the container will minimize air pockets.
- Place the container in a pan or bucket large enough to collect all drainage water. Elevate the container above the pan for complete drainage. Remove the tape from the holes and collect the water drained during two hours.
- Measure the volume of water drained from the container. Use the smallest units on the measuring cup (milliliters, ounces, or teaspoons).
- Calculate the percent air space and water-holding capacity by the formulas below.
- It is advisable to test three to five container/substrate samples at the same time and average the results.
% Air space = Volume of drained water (Step 7)
x 100
Container volume (Step 1)
% Total Water-holding capacity = Total pore space (Step 3) – Vol. drained water (Step 7)
x 100
Container volume (Step 1)
A plant cannot extract the total volume of water from the container substrate. Unavailable water is the portion of total water-holding capacity the plant is not able to take up. The portion of water-holding capacity volume taken up by the plant is called available water. The amount of available water in the container substrate can be determined by wetting thoroughly the substrate in a container with plant, so the substrate is holding all the water possible against the drainage force of gravity. Enclose container in plastic bag, weigh the container and plant. Let dry and weigh again just prior to plant beginning to wilt. The difference in wet and dry weight is water available to the plant or water taken up by the plant. Total water-holding capacity minus available water leaves unavailable water.
Procedure conducted with simulated containers
The following procedure adopted from the Australian Standard 3743 - Potting Mixes (Standards Australia, 1989) can be used to determine substrate air space and total water-holding capacity as a percentage of container volume. A plant cannot take up the total water-holding capacity volume as discussed above.
- Glue a PVC cap to a length of 3-inch diameter PVC pipe so height of pipe and cap is equal to depth of substrate in container, then determine the total volume inside of assembly (cap and pipe). Flatten the cap with appropriate tool so the assembly will stand upright. Drill four 0.25-inch holes in the bottom of the cap, with one in the center. Place a 3-inch diameter PVC coupling with 4.5-inch long pipe extension, loosely, on top of assembly and fill assembly and pipe extension with moist substrate. Drop the assembly twice from three inches. Refill after the second drop but do not pack.
- Place the assembly in water so that the top of the coupling is at the surface of the water. Three hours later, remove from water, drain, and submerge for ten minutes; lift, drain, and submerge for ten minutes. Remove from water and remove coupling with pipe extension, cutting substrate horizontally at surface of pipe attached to cap.
- Cover substrate with a cloth held in place with a rubber band.
- Submerge again, and after 30 minutes, lift the assembly with fingers covering the holes in the cap. Let excess water drain from your hands, then place the assembly above a pan for at least ten minutes to allow drainage. Measure volume drained.
|
5. Divide drainage volume by total volume of the assembly to calculate the percent aeration.
% Air Space = Volume of drained water (ML)
Assembly volume (ML)
6. Weigh wet substrate, dry in forced air oven at 221 F, and weigh again. The difference in wet and dry substrate weight (grams), divided by total volume (milliliters) of assembly is the percent total water-holding capacity.
% Total Water-holding capacity = Wet weight – Dry weight (g)
Assembly volume (ml)
7. It is advisable to test three to five assembly/substrate samples at the same time and average the results.
|
Appendix C
Substrate Nutrition
Pour-through (PT) - Procedure for Sampling
This procedure is practical for containers with volumes of five gallons or less because larger containers are too heavy to lift. The PT enables rapid sample collection without removing substrate from individual containers or groups of small containers that form cavities in trays.
- Irrigate plants and allow time for drainage (two hours to overnight) and equilibrium of moisture and nutrients within the substrate. Uniform substrate moisture levels are critical to obtaining consistent results with time.
- After this equilibration period, the container must be elevated above a collection vessel so that leachate or extract is not contaminated with debris or salts on the perimeter of the container. The bottom or sides of the container or flat should not be wiped before collecting leachate.
- Using a circular motion, apply just enough distilled water or irrigation water to the substrate surface to yield 30-50 ml (1.0-2.0 oz) of leachate (liquid) from the container or flat. See Table 13for approximate volumes to apply.
- Filter the leachate samples before sending to a commercial laboratory.
|
Table 13. Approximate volume of water to apply to obtain 50 ml (2.0 oz.)
of extract with PT.
Container size
|
Water to apply
|
Milliliters
|
Ounces
|
4 to 6 inch container
|
75
|
2.5
|
6.5 azalea container
|
100
|
3.5
|
1 quart
|
75
|
2.5
|
1 gallon
|
150
|
5
|
3 gallons
|
350
|
12
|
5 gallons
|
550
|
18.5
|
Cavities or cells in flats
|
50
|
2
|
Containers should be at container capacity
for about 30 minutes (for cavities or cells in flats and small containers) to 2
hours (for larger containers) before applying water. The volumes of water are
estimates so actual amount may vary depending on crop, substrate, or
environmental conditions. (Adapted from 1, 2, 3 of PourThru, Whipker et al.
2001).
|
Suction Lysimeter (SL) - Procedure for Sampling
This procedure enables rapid sample collection without removing substrate from large containers (greater than five-gallon) or physically moving containers. Lysimeters are about 24 inches long and two inches in diameter with a porous ceramic cup (0.5 bar air entry) on the end.
- A lysimeter is positioned about two inches from the container side and remains in place during crop production. To insert the lysimeter into the container substrate, a hole is made in the substrate slightly smaller than the lysimeter diameter so that the lysimeter fits snug within the substrate.
- One to two hours after irrigation, a vacuum pump is used to create a vacuum within the lysimeter tube. After about 15 minutes, the vacuum results in liquid extracted from the substrate collecting in the lysimeter tube.
- Remove the extract from the lysimeter using a syringe fitted with an extension tube. Once the extract is removed from the lysimeter, nutrient analyses can be conducted. Lysimeters (model 1900 L24) and accessories may be obtained from Soil Moisture Equipment Company, Santa Barbara, CA 03105 (http://www.soilmoisture.com).
Saturated Substrate Extract (SSE) - Procedure for Sampling
- Using a soil sample probe or a pointed object such as a spatula, remove substrate from each of 5-20 containers representative of the crop or plants under consideration.
- The upper layer of substrate cores may be disturbed and should be discarded. Blend the cores together into one uniform sample.
- Save about 200 ml (0.5 pint) of the total sample for saturation.
- Slowly add distilled water while stirring until the substrate surface is shiny, but no free water moves across the surface when the beaker is tilted. For best equilibration, allow the saturated sample to sit for two to six hours.
- Extract the substrate solution by vacuum filtering the saturated substrate.
Field Soils - Procedure for Sampling
In order for the soil sample to be representative of the field or area under consideration, several small samples are collected throughout the field or area, carefully mixed, and a sub-sample of the mixture is sent to a laboratory.
- A digging implement is used to obtain a small amount of soil from 10-15 locations throughout the field or area under consideration. The soil is removed from the upper 6-8 inches and sampling locations are spaced throughout the field or area.
- Each small amount of soil is placed in a plastic bucket. Avoid including soil from any “problem” spots. Submit soil samples from problem spots as separate samples.
- After sampling, mix the soil in the bucket so that all the soil is well blended.
- Take about a one-pint sub-sample of the blended soil and place it on a shopping bag or newspaper to air dry. Return the remaining soil in the bucket to the field.
- When the soil is air dry, transfer the soil to a labeled paper bag and send to a laboratory.
|
Calculating the Amount of
Nutrients Applied
Fertilizer Purchases
Records of the fertilizer purchased yearly
were used to calculate the amount of fertilizer applied, assuming all the
fertilizer purchased was applied.
Suppose a nursery bought 2500 lbs of 18-6-12
and the production area of this nursery is 9.0 acres. In 2500 lbs of 18-6-12
there are 450 lbs of nitrogen, which were distributed on 9.0 acres during the
year, resulting in 50 lbs of nitrogen per acre.
Fertilizer Applications
The amount of fertilizer applied with each
application is summed to obtain total applied or to account for all the
fertilizer applied throughout the year. For example, a nursery made three
fertilizer applications during the year (Table 14). The first application
consisted of 1000 lbs of 19-6-12 applied to containers in a field of 2.0 acres.
The second application consisted of 1650 lbs
of 14-14-14 applied to containers in a field of 2.5 acres. The third
application consisted of 1000 lbs of 18-6-12 applied to containers in a field
of 7.5 acres. Therefore, 600 lbs of nitrogen were applied to 12.0 acres,
resulting in 50 lbs of nitrogen applied per acre.
Trade names, companies, and products are used
for informational purposes and do not constitute endorsement or recommendation
nor discrimination for similar products not mentioned.
Table
14.
Total amount of nitrogen from three applications.
Time of Application
|
Fertilizer Applied (lbs.)
|
Analysis
|
Nitrogen applied (lbs)
|
Area (acres)
|
|
|
|
First
|
1000
|
19-6-12
|
190
|
2
|
|
Second
|
1650
|
14-14-14
|
230
|
2.5
|
|
Third
|
1000
|
18-6-12
|
180
|
7.5
|
|
|
|
Total
|
600
|
12
|
|
|
|
|